Research Article / Araştırma Makalesi Cultures of Conspiracy in Turkey and Cevat Rıfat Atilhan Türkiye’de Komplo Kültürü ve Cevat Rıfat Atilhan İskender Cüre* Abstract: Conspiracy theories have produced a large literature in both popular and academic publications and they have spread to numerous cultures by preserving their own context or varying according to local dynamics. One of the main elements of the cultures of conspiracy literature is those about secret societies like Masonry and religious groups like Jews. As it occurred in various parts of the world, conspiracy theories about Jews and Freemasons were remarkably adopted by representatives of different political groups in Turkey. This article is about cultures of conspiracy in Turkey and a Turk who has published extensively on conspiracy theories Cevat Rıfat Atilhan. He can be considered as the person, centrally effective for the spread of antisemitic thought in Turkey and Atilhan has particularly published a number of studies on Freemasonry as well as Judaism. The essential tendencies frequently seen in worldwide literature of conspiracy theories are duplicated in Cevat Rıfat Atilhan’s works and he claims that Freemasonry and Judaism work together. According to him, Masons and Jews cooperated with different states and they were highly effective in the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Additionally, in the Republican era, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk prohibited the Masonic lodges in 1935 and the Masons took their revenge by sickening Atatürk and slowly killing him in 1938. Structured Abstract: Conspiracy theories revealed a worldwide literature over the centuries and cultures of conspiracies affected both academic and popular writing in many senses. The relevant literature constructed the main discourse of this culture and among these writings, there are some main elements and arguments that are frequently mentioned. One of them is theories about secret societies such as Masonry and religious groups such as Judaism. Conspiracy theories about different secret societies mainly emerged in Western culture, particularly after the French Revolution, and they have spread to other cultures of the non-Western World over time. The widespread conspiracy theories in these countries have similarities with the Western conspiracy theories as well as local dynamics related to their own cultures. Looking at the conspiracies about the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey, it is possible to say that the antecedents are the plots about Sabbatai Sevi and Judaism. The Jews who followed the messianic rhetoric of Sabbatai Sevi in the 17th century converted to Islam and they were called “Dönme”. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, various conspiracies were produced regarding both the collapse of the empire and the Republican period and they were related to dönmes, Jews, and Masons in numerous ways. Sanatçı, T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı; Doktora Adayı, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Kültürel Çalışmalar Bölümü Artist, Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Culture and Tourism; PhD Candidate, Yıldız Technical University, Institute of Social Sciences, Cultural Studies Department * 0000-0003-3716-7245 iskendercure@hotmail.com Cite as/ Atıf: Cüre, İ. (2023). Cultures of conspiracy in Turkey and Cevat Rıfat Atilhan. Turkish Studies - Economy, 18(3), 683-692. https://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.66441 Received/Geliş: 18 November/Kasım 2022 Checked by plagiarism software Accepted/Kabul: 25 September/Eylül 2023 © Yazar(lar)/Author(s) | CC BY-NC 4.0 Published/Yayın: 30 September/Eylül 2023 İskender Cüre 684 In this study, conspiracy culture in Turkey and a Turk who has written extensively on conspiracy theories is mainly discussed by relating to current conspiracy literature. With his books and essays on conspiracy theories, Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, a war hero and retired soldier is one of the most well-known people in Turkey in terms of conspiracy literature. He also cooperated with the Nazis and collected some sorts of official and unofficial sources from both Turkey and other states. Thanks to his similarities to the conspiracy culture and literature of other parts of the world, Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, a particular and unique figure, has been preferred as the study’s example. The works of Cevat Rıfat Atilhan who has written numerous books and essays, resemble the main conspiracy theory literature from both Turkey and the rest of the world. In his fruitful writing career, Cevat Rifat Atilhan essentially focused on the Dönmes and Jews. In addition to his anti-Jewish essays, Atilhan, who belonged to numerous groups and had connections to Nazis, asserts that the Dönmes want to eliminate Islam and the teachings of the Qur'an. It is clear from Cevat Rıfat Atilhan's writings in the field of international conspiracy fiction that he also holds a firm conviction in protocols. He claims that the protocols created by Jews are beyond dispute. For Atilhan, protocols aim to undermine morality, dismantle the family, corrupt the arts, promote skepticism, boost consumption, disseminate radical ideologies, expose strikes and lockouts, and redesign the global order by having an impact on everyone in line with the predetermined course of action. One of Turkey's most well-known writers on conspiracies, Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, has written numerous works on both Freemasonry and Judaism. Atilhan frequently refers to “Freemasonry” as “Farmason”, which is a Turkish word for it. Since he was young, he has absorbed a lot of unfavorable information about Freemasonry, the most common of which is that it is utterly irreligious. In Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, the mindset that appears frequently in conspiracy theories is repeated. According to Atilhan, Freemasonry and Judaism are compatible. He said that Freemasonry borrowed all of its traditions, rites, and practices from Judaism and that it is a Jewish religion that is only practiced by non-Jews. Atilhan's description of Freemasonry summarizes the mentality of conspiracy theories that easily associate different events with each other. Freemasons: Godless, Jewish, Internationalist, and Communist. Atilhan asserts that Freemasons had a significant impact on political developments during and after the reign of Abdülhamid II. Freemasons collaborated with nations like English, French, and Italian that sought to topple the Ottoman Empire and assisted Western imperialists in bringing the Ottoman Empire to an end. Cevat Rıfat Atilhan’s conspiracies are not limited to the Ottoman Period. He also claims that Atatürk's death in 1938 is related to the prohibition of Freemasonry in Turkey. According to him, the Masons took revenge for the closing of their lodges by killing Atatürk. One of the most fruitful authors in the conspiracy theory culture in Turkey is Cevat Rıfat Atilhan. In addition to being a soldier, Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, as a politician and publisher, carried out many activities against Jews and Freemasons. According to him, there was an alliance between Jews and Freemasons, and these groups worked to overthrow the Ottoman Empire. Operations against Turks and Muslims continued during the Republican period, they made him seem irreligious to estrange the people from Atatürk, and eventually, they killed Atatürk as well. As a result, Cevat Rıfat Atilhan was particularly influential among the rightists in his lifetime and became one of the specific examples of Turkey in the culture of conspiracy literature. Keywords: Politics, Conspiracy, Masonry, Judaism, Cevat Rıfat Atilhan. Öz: Komplo teorileri; popüler yayınların yanı sıra akademik yazında da oldukça geniş bir literatür üretmiş ve bu teoriler zaman içerisinde, kendi özgün bağlamlarını korumalarının yanı sıra yerel dinamiklere göre şekillenip çeşitlenerek farklı kültürlere de yayılmışlardır. Komplo literatürü kültürünün ön plana çıkan ve sıkça tekrarlanan temel unsurları arasında, Masonlar gibi gizli topluluklar ve Yahudiler gibi dini gruplar hakkındaki çeşitli komplo teorileri yer almaktadır. Dünyanın diğer bölgelerinde olduğu gibi, Yahudiler ve Masonlar hakkındaki komplo teorileri; Türkiye’de de muhtelif siyasi grupların temsilcileri tarafından farklı türlerdeki yayınlara konu edilmiştir. Bu çalışma, Türkiye’deki komplo teorileri kültürünün yanı sıra komplo teorileri hakkında çok sayıda çalışma yapmış bir Türk olan Cevat Rıfat Atilhan’ın yayınlarını incelemekte ve Atilhan ile dünyadaki komplo teorileri literatürünün benzerliklerini örneklerle ortaya koymaktadır. Bu alanda velut bir isim olan ve özellikle Masonlar ile Yahudiler üzerine yoğunlaşan Atilhan, Türkiye’de anti-semitik Turkish Studies - Economy, 18(3) Cultures of Conspiracy in Turkey and Cevat Rıfat Atilhan 685 düşüncenin yayılmasında ana figürlerden biridir. Dünya çapında yaygın olan komplo teorileri literatürü içerisinde sıkça görülen eğilim, Cevat Rıfat Atilhan tarafından da tekrarlanmış, Atilhan çalışmalarında Masonlar ve Yahudilerin birlikte çalıştıklarını iddia etmiştir. Ona göre Masonlar ve Yahudiler farklı devletlerle iş birliği yaparak Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun çöküşünde etkili oldukları gibi faaliyetleri bununla da sınırlı kalmamıştır. Atilhan’a göre, Cumhuriyet döneminde Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, 1935'te Mason localarını yasakladığı için, Masonlar intikamlarını 1938'de Atatürk'ü hasta edip yavaş yavaş öldürerek almışlardır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Siyaset Bilimi, Komplo, Masonluk, Yahudilik, Cevat Rıfat Atilhan. Introduction Conspiracy theories have produced a large literature in both popular and academic publications and they have spread to numerous cultures by preserving their own context or varying according to local dynamics. There are various types of claims and publications about conspiracies, as well as many definitions. To explain briefly, we can use the following three sentences that reflect the essential characteristics of conspiracy theories mainly based on suspicion: Nothing happens by accident, nothing as it seems, and everything is connected (Barkun, 2003, pp. 3-4). One of the main elements of the cultures of conspiracy literature is those about secret societies like Masonry and religious groups like Judaism. Conspiracies about numerous societies, also named “new world order societies”, have primarily emerged in the West but they have also spread to other parts of the world. This study is about cultures of conspiracy in Turkey and a Turk who has published extensively on conspiracy theories. Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, a war hero and retired soldier, also communicated with the Nazis and is one of the prominent figures in Turkey with his books and articles on conspiracy theories. Atilhan also used different types of official or nonofficial sources from Turkey and foreign countries in his works and he became a major figure in terms of conspiracy literature over time. Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, a specific and original example, has been the example of this study because of his similarities with the current conspiracy culture in the worldwide literature. The book, published from an academic study on Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, is entitled “Against Judaism and Freemasonry: Cevat Rıfat Atilhan” (Bozkurt, 2012) which expresses his main rhetoric. For this reason, first, the main figures of cultures of conspiracy and the place of Masonry and Judaism in the conspiracy theories will be explained. In the second part, conspiracy theories in Turkey will be mentioned and the thoughts of Cevat Rıfat Atilhan will be exemplified. In the conclusion part, the aspects demonstrated within the scope of the study will be summarized with the major lines. Main Figures of Conspiracies In this field, which can be called culture and defined as “cultures of conspiracy”, some theories come to the fore according to different time periods. As one of the most fruitful times for conspiracy theories, it is possible to highlight the Covid-19 pandemic process. The most recent pandemic has produced a lot of conspiracies, especially about vaccines and drugs but the Covid-19 pandemic is not the first time that these conspiracy theories have been produced intensively, and there have been different periods like this in history. On the other hand, the Covid-19 pandemic is not the first example of health conspiracy theories. Among the conspiracy theories, there are various claims about different pandemics and epidemics. One of the most common health conspiracy theories is the theory about HIV virus and AIDS. According to one extreme claim about this, “HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), the virus that causes AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), was the product of American or Soviet biological warfare research before it was released (either intentionally or otherwise) on an unsuspecting world (Keeley, 1999, p. 110).” www.turkishstudies.net/economy İskender Cüre 686 By looking at the historical change of conspiracy theories, it is possible to say that the Age of Enlightenment had a great impact. “The nexus between the great revolutions of the eighteenth century and enlightenment ideas, as well as the emergence of secret societies, has been a contentious issue ever since (Oberhauser, 2020, p. 556).” Different philosophies emerged, publications increased, and great diversity began, especially in the West with the Age of Enlightenment. Thanks to the effect of this process, the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution in similar periods have also activated the cultures of conspiracy. As a result, conspiracy theories, “for the past two centuries have played a notable role in shaping public perceptions of history and politics and have done as a feature of political ideologies and projects whose role in history has been far from positive (Byford, 2014, p. 13).” Among the large literature on conspiracy theories, it is possible to see that there are many conspiracies about the First World War, the Second World War, and the Cold War. For example, “the Cold War is often seen as a golden age of conspiracy theories, especially the belief that domestic communist parties were a fifth column (Girard, 2020, p. 574).” When talking about more specific examples, two major events that guided conspiracy theories in the period before the Covid19 pandemic, also called “plan-demi” by some conspiracy theorists, can be mentioned. The first of these two major events is the assassination of the 35th US president, John F. Kennedy. As an example of the conspiracy theories produced about this assassination, the claims about the “Umbrella Man” can be mentioned (Brotherton, 2015, p. 160). The second major event that is frequently referenced in conspiracy theories is 9/11. These conspiracies (can be added also Princess Diana) can be defined as “non-specific items that would have individuals rate their acceptance of the more generic belief that conspiracy within governments to secretly perpetrate terrorist activities on their own citizens is commonplace (Brotherton et al., 2013, p. 2).” Conspiracy theories like this also reflect the general tendency of conspiracy culture that there is some truth hidden behind official explanations in a sentence: Nothing as it seems. “When you suspect people, especially authorities, of being untrustworthy, you’re probably going to take ‘official’ explanations with a grain of salt (Brotherton, 2015, p. 109).” It can be said that one of the reasons for the indifference towards official explanations is the basic elements of the mentality of conspiracy theories: “When big things happen in the world -the untimely death of a public figure, an unprecedented revolution, a tragic aviation disaster, a shocking terrorist atrocity, an epidemic of a deadly new disease- the “official stories” often leave us cold (Brotherton, 2015, p. 218).” Masonry and Judaism in Conspiracy Literature Looking at the examples of “secret societies” or “new world order societies”, three groups that are frequently referenced in the literature can be mentioned: Knights Templars, Illuminati, and Masons. It can be claimed that these three societies are related to each other as well as to other societies. The oldest of these communities, the “Knights Templars”, emerged in the 12th century and they were excommunicated and disbanded between 1307 and 1314 (Hodapp & Von Kannon, 2008, p. 164). Conspiracies about the “Knights Templars”, which started to disappear in these years, continued in the following centuries. The second society, the Illuminati, has a different history from the Knights Templars. “Illuminism had been started in 1776 by Adam Weishaupt, a professor of law at the University of Ingolstadt (Hofstadter, 1964, p. 78).” He utilized organizational models taken from both the Jesuits and the Masons and created a new secular organization whose aim was to free the world from all established religious and political authority (Barkun, 2003, p. 46). Although it was active for a short time according to written sources, conspiracies about the Illuminati still exist. Turkish Studies - Economy, 18(3) Cultures of Conspiracy in Turkey and Cevat Rıfat Atilhan 687 Among these secret societies, probably the best-known and least-hidden community is the Freemasons. Contrary to what is mentioned especially in the conspiracy theory literature, masons are organized in many parts of the world and are active under the name of non-governmental organizations. The way Freemasons describe themselves also briefly reveals their mindset: We’re not a secret society, we’re a society with secrets (Hodapp & Von Kannon, 2008, p. 161). The fact they have their own degrees such as entered apprentices, fellow craft, and master mason, and the requirements of being a Freemason in terms of classical Freemasonry such as being a man, not being disabled, and having their own rituals make Freemasonry mysterious. There are many written sources about Freemasonry and its different features such as its history and rituals are explained in detail. We can briefly summarize it as follows: The origins of Freemasonry lie in the secrets of the masonry. Over time, it became a community of thought, and these two periods were divided into operative freemasonry and speculative freemasonry. Symbols, degrees, rites, and rituals are very important in Freemasonry (Barkun, 2003, pp. 128-129). Their mostly introverted, partially extroverted organization opens gates to various conspiracies to be produced about them. Different groups can be included in secret societies, but it can be said that these three groups reflect the general framework. Especially, Freemasonry stands out as the most talked about group with the effect of its continuation. On the other hand, when talking about major religious groups, there are different conspiracy theories about Christians, Jews, and Muslims. However, it can be said that the Jews are the religious group with the most conspiracy theories. Similarly, other secret societies are associated with Jews in different ways as scapegoats. In the conspiracy literature, one of the most notorious documents is the “Protocols of the Elders of Zion”: “This document, which purported to record the secret meetings of a conspiratorial Jewish leadership group whose aim was to take control over the world, has played a major role in stirring up fears of a Jewish conspiracy and catalyzing repressive actions against Jewish communities throughout Europe and beyond since its appearance in the late nineteenth century (Bale, 2007, p. 55).” Although there are many references to protocols in the conspiracy literature, in fact, these were completely fake documents. Since both the French and the Russian revolutions rapidly turned from their egalitarian promises to dictatorial terror, the Protocols struck many an observer in the 1920s as prophetic (Landes & Katz, 2012, p. 4). The truth soon became clear. Some journalists and scholars quickly discovered they were plagiarized from two different sources (Barkun, 2003, p. 50). However, protocols are frequently connotated among those who believe in conspiracy theories. “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion” can be considered the most important anti-Semitic text of modern times (Barkun, 2003, p. 142). The Protocols were used as a written source for AntiSemitism in parallel with Hitler-era Germany and Nazism, as well as having a great impact on the conspiracy theory literature. On the other hand, Anti-Semitism is often combined with AntiMasonry. The alleged cooperation between Masons and Jews dates to before the Nazis: “The modern conspiracy theory and conspiracist mindset laid down in influential books and essays, is relatively new, having grown up since the French Revolution in 1789, which was often blamed on the Jews and the Freemasons (Hodapp & Von Kannon, 2008, p. 95).” Conspiracies of non-Westerns It is possible to say that the conspiracy culture literature is majorly Eurocentric. This trend is to be expected, especially considering that conspiracy theories began to emerge in the Age of www.turkishstudies.net/economy İskender Cüre 688 Enlightenment and later. In addition to Europe, the USA has a special place in terms of conspiracy theories. Differently from conspiracies about the JFK assassination and 9/11, theories about UFOs and examples of different subjects can be mentioned in this sense. Conspiracies about Freemasons and Jews have spread around the world. These conspiracies can be seen in various countries, but specific conspiracies or varying conspiracy theories can also be mentioned according to the countries. For example, in Russia, after the collapse of the Soviet Union with Mikhail Gorbachov, many conspiracy theories emerged in a few years. The main idea of the post-soviet times conspiracy was the threat of Westerns. This was basically the ideology of the world government called Mondialism and the obstacle to a world completely controlled by the West was destroyed with the collapse of the Soviet Union (Yablokov, 2020, p. 586). Looking at the Arab world and the Middle East, it is possible to encounter a different culture. Matthew Gray (2010) summarizes the situation in the introduction of his book on this subject: “A feature of conspiracism in the Arab world (plus Iran and other Middle Eastern states) has been the use of conspiracist discourse as a tool of state rhetoric: conspiracism has not been the discursive domain of the marginalized or of actors other than the state alone. This is not unique, of course, and has been a feature of state discourse in the Soviet Union and some East Asian states as well, but it is a strong characteristic of Middle Eastern state rhetoric. (Gray, 2010, p. 14)” Before looking at the situation in Turkey, we can give another example from the Asian continent, after Russia and the Middle East. An example of a conspiracy theory specific to Japan is a terrorist group that has also religious characteristics Aum Shinrikyo organized a deadly sarin gas attack on the Tokyo metro in 1994 (Ryutaro, 2018, p. 389). Looking at the background of Aum Shinrikyo, it is seen that the organization believes in different conspiracy theories. According to them, the Holocaust was invented by Jews to legitimize the foundation of Israel, Princess Diana was assassinated by the British royal family, The Beatles was a brainwashing campaign planned by others, etc. (Ryutaro, 2018, p. 394). As seen in these examples, conspiracy theories can sometimes be used by states or sometimes by different terrorist groups. Conspiracies in Turkey and Cevat Rıfat Atilhan Looking at the situation in Turkey, we can find the rise of the conspiracy culture in the last years of the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Abdülhamid II (reigned between 1876 and 1909) had a style of governance like an iron fist and a conspiracy culture which began during his time inherited by Young Turks who had dethroned Abdülhamid (Gürpınar & Nefes, 2020, p. 611). Shortly after Young Turks took power, World War I started and there was a great defeat. At the end of this war, Istanbul was occupied by the Westerners, and another trauma was added to this great trauma called “Sèvres Syndrome”. The Treaty of Sèvres signed in 1920 aimed to force the Turks to dissolve most of their military and relinquish significant territory, including Turkish-majority areas (Gürpınar & Nefes, 2020: 612). This was not the beginning of conspiracy culture in the Ottoman Empire and its precedent was Sabbatai Sevi. He lived in the 17th century and had an important place in the literature of conspiracy theories about Jews in Turkey. Sabbatai Sevi was claimed by Nathan of Gaza to be the messiah of the Jews and became a popular figure at that time. As a response to his popularity, the Ottoman authorities imprisoned Sevi and he converted to Islam with their inculcation or force (Nefes, 2015, p. 576). Despite appearing to have converted to Islam, those who followed Sevi's beliefs and Judaism began to be called “dönme” from this period. As with other conspiracy theories, over time Judaism and Freemasonry began to be combined with each other, especially during the period the Ottoman Empire had collapsed: Turkish Studies - Economy, 18(3) Cultures of Conspiracy in Turkey and Cevat Rıfat Atilhan 689 “The birth of conspiracy theories relating to Jews and Freemasons can be dated to the early twentieth century, exacerbated by Zionist demands to settle in the then Ottoman territory of Palestine, and by the existence of the community Dönme (Jewish converts, also known as ‘conversos’) (Gürpınar & Nefes, 2020, p. 610).” Conspiracy theories about Jews and Freemasons were adopted by the people of different political groups in Turkey. It is possible to feature the Nationalists, Kemalists, and Islamists among these groups. “Among the Islamists, the more notable names over the years are Ziya Uygur, Yesevizade, Ali Uğur, Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, and Necip Fazıl Kısakürek (Bali, 2013, p. 25).” Cevat Rıfat Atilhan (1892-1967), one of the names mentioned, has a different reputation in the conspiracy theory literature in Turkey. Cevat Rıfat Atilhan can be called the person centrally responsible for the spread of antisemitic thought in Turkey (Bali, 2013, p. 13). The works of Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, who has published many books and articles, have similarities with the conspiracy theory literature both in Turkey and in the world. First, talk about Turkey, Dönmes, and Jews are the groups that Cevat Rifat Atilhan wrote about in his different works. In addition to his anti-Jewish publications, Atilhan, who was in different organizations in the world and had relationships with the Nazis, argues that the goal of the Dönmes is to abolish the provisions of the Qur'an and to destroy Islam (Atilhan, 1955, p. 65). It can be said that one of the original elements of the anti-Semitic discourse inherited from the Ottoman Empire is the “barrel with needles” named in Turkish “iğneli fıçı”. According to claims, the Jews put children from other religions “in barrels filled with needles from which they extract their blood to use in making unleavened bread as a ritual (Bali, 2013, p. 315)”. Cevat Rıfat Atilhan focused on this subject and wrote a book about the murders that he claimed were seen as rituals. In this book, Atilhan describes different murders with the documents that he claimed to have taken from state archives and different sources. Atilhan certainly believes in the existence of this ritual (Atilhan, 1979, p. 4). Considering Cevat Rıfat Atilhan's works in terms of world conspiracy literature, it is seen that he has also a definite belief in protocols. According to him, it is an indisputable issue that the protocols were prepared by the Jews. For Atilhan, protocols that demolish morality, destroy the family, corrupt the arts, encourage disbelief, increase consumption, spread extremist ideas, reveal strikes and lockouts, and redesign the world order by doing these, affect everyone in accordance with the plan prepared in advance (Atilhan, 1957, pp. 8-10). Freemasonry, which is active in different regions of the world, also has an institutional organization in Turkey. When we look at the representation of Freemasonry in Turkey, it is seen that classical freemasonry is represented by “Hür ve Kabul Edilmiş Masonlar Büyük Locası/Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons” and the new type of Freemasonry is represented by “Özgür Masonlar Büyük Locası/Grand Lodge of Free Masons”. For these two groups, it can be said that are connected to different masonic rites and have no relations with each other. According to them, Freemasonry first emerged in the 18th century in the Ottoman Empire with limited groups (Türkiye’de Masonluğun Tarihi, 2018). The first big lodge within the borders of the Ottoman Empire was established in Izmir in 1857, under the name of “Grande Loge de Turquie” (Türkiye’de Masonluk Tarihi – Özgür Masonlar Büyük Locası, 2020). There are many names such as politicians, ministers, soldiers, scientists, poets, writers, artists, and clergy in the list presented under the title “Famous Masons in Turkey” on the website of classical freemasons in Turkey (Türkiye’de Ünlü Masonlar | Hür ve Kabul Edilmiş Masonlar Büyük Locası, 2018). Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, one of the leading conspiracy theories writers in Turkey, has published various studies on Freemasonry as well as Judaism. Atilhan frequently uses the term “Farmason”, which is a Turkish version of “Freemasonry”. He has learned a lot of negative knowledge about www.turkishstudies.net/economy İskender Cüre 690 Freemasonry since his childhood and heard the most about this topic is that Freemasonry is completely irreligious (Atilhan, 1963, pp. 194-195). The tendency frequently seen in conspiracy theories is duplicated by Cevat Rıfat Atilhan. Atilhan says that Freemasonry and Judaism work together. According to him, Freemasonry transferred its customs, rituals, traditions and all its features from Judaism and Freemasonry is a Jewish religion exclusively for non-Hebrews (Atilhan, 1960, p. 7). Atilhan's description of Freemasonry summarizes the mindset of conspiracy theories that easily associate different events with each other. Freemasons: Godless, Jewish, Internationalist, and Communist (Atilhan, 1972, pp. 754-757). The Ottoman Empire ruled for more than 600 years and ultimately collapsed. Many conspiracy theories have been produced on this subject as well as different reasons for the collapse of the empire. Among these theories, Theodor Herzl, a Jew who lived during the reign of Abdülhamid II, called “Red Sultan/le Sultan Rouge” by his opponents, is a prominent figure (Gürpınar & Nefes, 2020, p. 616). According to Atilhan, Freemasons were influential in the political developments during and after the reign of Abdülhamid II. Freemasons cooperated with the states that wanted to overthrow the Ottoman Empire, such as the English, French, and Italian, and they helped the Western imperialists to collapse the Ottoman Empire (Atilhan, 1963, p. 90). For Atilhan, one of the most important periods in terms of the history of Freemasonry in Turkey is the Republican period. Freemasonry was also prohibited in 1935 when Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was alive (Türkiye’de Masonluğun Tarihi, 2018). It can be said that this date, which is called the “sleep period” instead of “shutdown” for the Masons, is a remarkable milestone. Cevat Rıfat Atilhan claims that Atatürk's death in 1938 is related to the prohibition of Freemasonry. According to him, the Masons took revenge for the closing of their lodges by killing Atatürk (Bozkurt, 2012, p. 284). Conclusion The conspiracy theory literature is a large literature that talks about various topics and can still be influential today. These theories try to explain the invisible forces behind visible events and produce claims about different topics such as revolutions, pandemics, epidemics, deaths of famous names, etc. These conspiracy theories, which precedentedly emerged in the West and especially with the Age of Enlightenment, influenced other cultures over time. Conspiracy theories that emerged in different cultures, like those in the West, can talk about secret societies trying to establish the new world order like Masonry as well as religious groups such as Jews. Looking at the conspiracies about the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey, it is possible to say that the early examples are about Sabbatai Sevi and Judaism. The Jews who followed the messianic rhetoric of Sabbatai Sevi apparently converted to Islam and they were called “dönme”. As a result, the Ottoman Empire collapsed, and different conspiracies were produced regarding both the collapse of the empire and the Republican period. One of the most fruitful names in the conspiracy theory culture in Turkey is Cevat Rıfat Atilhan. In addition to being a soldier, Cevat Rıfat Atilhan, as a politician and publisher, carried out many activities against Jews and Freemasons. According to him, there was cooperation between Jews and Freemasons, and these groups worked to overthrow the Ottoman Empire. Activities against Turks and Muslims continued during the Republican period, they made him seem irreligious to estrange the people from Atatürk, and eventually, they killed Atatürk as well. As a result, Cevat Rıfat Atilhan was influential among the rightists in his lifetime and became one of the specific examples of Turkey in the culture of conspiracy literature. Turkish Studies - Economy, 18(3) Cultures of Conspiracy in Turkey and Cevat Rıfat Atilhan 691 References Atilhan, C. R. (1955). İslam’ı saran tehlike. Aykurt Neşriyat. Atilhan, C. R. (1957). Gizli devlet ve fesat programı. Aykurt Neşriyat. Atilhan, C. R. (1960). Farmasonluk insanlığın kanseri. Aykurt Neşriyat. Atilhan, C. R. (1963). Farmasonlar islamiyet’i ve türklüğü yıkmak için nasıl çalıştılar?. Aykurt Neşriyat. Atilhan, C. R. (1972). Masonluk nedir, tarihte ve günümüzde masonluk. Aykurt Neşriyat. 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